Information about Meningitis

[This information is extracted from ehealthMD website for your benefits]

What Is Meningitis ?


Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges, the lining that protects the brain and spinal cord.

It is almost always caused by an infection, usually by a bacteria (bacterial meningitis) or a virus (viral meningitis). In rare cases it can be triggered by a fungus or parasite.

Meningitis occurs most commonly in young children under 5, those aged 17-25 (who often live in close quarters like dormitories and barracks), and people over age 55. People with compromised immune systems, such as people with HIV or AIDS, are also at increased risk.

What Are The Meninges ?



The meninges are composed of three layers of membranes enclosing the brain and spinal cord.

* Pia mater is the innermost layer. It is akin to a tissue paper that closely adheres to the brain and spinal cord, dipping into the various folds and crevices.

* Arachnoid mater is the middle layer. It is a filmy membrane that is joined to the pia mater by fine threads resembling a cobweb.

* The dura mater, a parchment-like membrane, lies on the outermost part of the meninges and adheres to the skull and spinal canal.

* The cerebral spinal fluid The fluid that surrounds and cushions the brain and spinal cord. (CSF) is the fluid that circulates in the spaces in and around the brain and spinal cord.



What Happens When The Meninges Swell ?

The most frequent cause of meningitis is the entry of a microorganism-such as a bacterium or a virus-from an infection elsewhere in the body. The microorganisms travel through the blood and into the meninges and cerebral spinal fluid.



In the bloodstream, infection-causing microorganisms are fought off by white blood cells, an important part of the immune system. However, there are no white blood cells in the cerebral spinal fluid to fight infectious agents.

Once infectious organisms have entered the cerebrospinal fluid, the body's defenses cannot control their rapid growth and the disease races through the delicate surfaces and fluids of the central nervous system.



As the immune system gears up to fight off the microorganisms, it sends out chemical signals that produce inflammation and interfere with the normal functioning of the central nervous system. That, in turn, causes swelling and increased pressure inside the skull, and disrupts the brain's normal functioning.

What Causes Meningitis ?

There are two main forms of meningitis:

* bacterial meningitis, and

* viral meningitis.

Bacterial meningitis affects fewer people than the viral form, but it often results in more serious health consequences. Bacterial meningitis is fatal in 1 in 10 cases and leaves 1 in 7 survivors with a severe disability caused by brain injury.

Bacterial Meningitis

There are several types of bacterial meningitis. Two types represent the majority of bacterial meningitis cases:

1. meningococcal

2. pneumococcal

The bacteria that cause these cases are common and live in the back of the nose and throat, or in the upper respiratory tract.

The bacteria are spread among people by coughing, sneezing and kissing. These bacteria cannot live outside the body for long, so they cannot be picked up from water supplies, swimming pools, or a building's air-conditioning system.

Individuals can carry these bacteria for days, weeks, or months without becoming ill. In fact, about 25 percent of the population carries the bacteria. Only rarely do the bacteria overcome the body's defenses and invade the cerebra spinal fluid, causing meningitis.

Meningococcal meningitis accounts for more than half of all cases of bacterial meningitis in the United States. Meningococcal disease is caused by bacteria called Neisseria meningitidis. There are several strains of Neisseria meningitidis. Strain B causes about 75 percent of the meningococcal cases and has the highest fatality rate.

Pneumococcal meningitis is caused by pneumococcus bacteria, which also cause several diseases of the respiratory system, including pneumonia. It has a fatality rate of about 20 percent. It also results in a higher incidence of brain damage than other forms of the disease.

Other types of bacterial meningitis include :

Neonatal meningitis: This form affects mostly newborn babies and is caused by Group B streptococcus bacteria, commonly found in the intestines.

Staphylococcal meningitis: This is a rare, but deadly form caused by staphylococcus bacteria. It usually develops as a complication of a diagnostic or surgical procedure.

Haemophilus influenza type B (Hib) is caused by haemophilus bacteria. It was once the most common form of bacterial meningitis, and one of the deadliest childhood diseases. However, in 1985, an Hib vaccine was introduced into the routine immunization program for U.S. children and virtually eliminated Hib meningitis in the United States.

Viral Meningitis

Viral meningitis is far more common than the bacterial form and, in most cases, much less debilitating. Most people exposed to viruses that cause meningitis experience mild or no symptoms and fully recover without complications. '

The disease can be caused by many different viruses. Some of the viruses are transmitted by coughing or sneezing or through poor hygiene. Other viruses can be found in sewage polluted waters.

Occasionally, viral meningitis will develop following the mumps or chicken pox. Mosquito-born viruses also account for a few cases each year.

Approximately half of the viral cases in the United States are due to common intestinal viruses, or enteroviruses Viruses that live in the gut and are usually shed in the feces and in discharges from the mouth and nose.. These viruses are shed in the feces and in discharges from the mouth and nose. Most people who become infected with the virus contract it through hand-to-mouth contact.

What Are The Symptoms Of Meningitis ?

The symptoms of meningitis are similar for both bacterial and viral forms of the disease. Adults and older children typically experience:

* Fever and chills

* Headache

* Vomiting

* Stiff neck (patient may not be able to curl up in bed with nose to knees)

* Irritability and drowsiness

* Eyes that are sensitive to light

* Delirium and confusion (uncommon)

* Seizures (rare)

* Coma (rare)

Symptoms in infants and young children include :

* Whimpering and crying in a high-pitched tone

* Difficulty in waking and very lethargic when awake

* Fussiness when being held or cuddled

* Arching the back and retracting the neck

* Staring blankly at their surroundings

* Having a high fever and cold hands and feet

* Refusing food

* Vomiting

* Appearing pale or blotchy

Meningococcal meningitis often causes a distinctive rash. This rash is the result of a form of septicemia An infection in the bloodstream that results from some cases of meningococcal meningitis. It is characterized by a rash caused by broken blood vessels. (infection in the bloodstream), a potentially fatal condition.

Septicemia occurs when the meningococcus bacteria multiply uncontrollably in the bloodstream. The bacteria release toxins into the blood that break down the walls of the blood vessels, allowing blood to leak into the skin. The leaking causes a characteristic rash, called a hemorrhagic rash. The rash can appear anywhere on the body, including in the eyes and often between the toes.

The rash starts as a cluster of tiny blood spots, which look like pin pricks in the skin. If untreated, these spots gradually grow and become multiple areas of bleeding, resembling fresh bruises under the skin surface. The spots or bruises do not blanch (turn white) when pressed.

How Is Meningitis Diagnosed ?

If meningitis is suspected, treatment should be sought immediately.

At the hospital, a doctor can make a quick diagnosis by withdrawing a small sample of the spinal fluid for examination. This procedure is called a lumbar puncture (spinal tap). It involves inserting a needle into the middle of the lower back and collecting some drops of fluid. The procedure can be slightly uncomfortable but is rarely painful with the use of a local anesthetic.

Laboratory analysis of the spinal fluid will confirm if the meninges are infected. The tests can usually, but not always, determine what type of germ has infected the patient.

* In mild forms of meningitis the lumbar puncture may alleviate a patient's headache, possibly by reducing the fluid's pressure on the meninges.

At the hospital, blood tests are also taken to look for the germ in the blood and to check that the patient is otherwise healthy.

In newborns, doctors may also check the fluid in their stomach with a small tube passed down the throat, and test their feces for the presence of suspected germs.

Diagnosis cannot be made through imaging tests, such as X rays or ultrasound A harmless pain free test that uses sound waves to create pictures of the inside of the body. However, these tests can be used to insure that the brain is not in damage from pressure or the accumulation of fluid. Doctors may also order a chest X-ray, since as many as half of patients with pneumococcal meningitis also have evidence of pneumonia.

How Is Meningitis Treated ?

Doctors isolate patients with possible meningitis and immediately start them on intravenous antibiotics before they determine whether it's bacterial or viral meningitis.

If the diagnosis turns out to be viral meningitis, the antibiotic treatment is stopped, because antibiotics have no effect on the viruses. In fact, there is no treatment for viral meningitis, the illness must simply run its course.

Rest, fluids, and good nutrition, as well as measures to control fever and relieve pain, will ease discomfort and aid in recovery from viral meningitis.

Patients with bacterial meningitis receive intravenous antibiotics for a week or more.

In more severe cases, a patient needs medication to control seizures or must be put on a ventilator to assist with breathing. If excessive pressure builds up inside the skull, a small tube is sometimes inserted into the meninges Three-layer lining that protects and cushions the brain and spinal cord. to relieve the pressure.

Drugs such as dexamethasone ( a steroid, different from the steroids abused by bodybuilders, that can reduce swelling of the brain) are sometimes given to reduce inflammation or to reduce the chance, or spread, of septicemia An infection in the bloodstream that results from some cases of meningococcal meningitis. It is characterized by a rash caused by broken blood vessels.. They are usually only given in severe cases where the response to antibiotics has been slow.

* The usefulness of dexamethasone has been debated. Studies have shown that children with H influenzae type B infection who were given dexamethasone had fewer after-effects, such as hearing loss. However, doctors are concerned that dexamethasone can make it harder for antibiotics to reach the infection.

Complications Of Meningitis

In general, nearly all people with viral meningitis and 70 to 80 percent of people with bacterial meningitis will recover, although that varies by age and health of the patient.

Although most people make a swift and complete recovery, meningitis (particularly the bacterial form) can result in a variety of after effects. Some of these effects are permanent and physically disabling and some are less obvious, affecting the individual emotionally.

According to the National Meningitis Trust in England, infants and young children often face minor complications following meningitis. These include:

* Babyish behavior

* Temper tantrums

* Forgetting recently learned skills

* Reverting to bed-wetting

* Insomnia

Older children and adults may experience :

* Lethargy

* Recurring headaches

* Difficulty in concentration

* Short-term memory loss

* Clumsiness

* Balance problems

* Depression

* Bouts of aggression

* Mood swings

* Learning difficulties

Other serious complications can include :

* Brain damage

* Epilepsy

* Changes in eye sight

Can Meningitis Be Prevented ?

Apart from vaccination, there is no known way to protect against meningitis. Although there is little people can do to prevent meningitis, they can limit its devastating health effects by recognizing the symptoms of the disease and seeking immediate medical treatment.

Immunizations

Some forms of bacterial meningitis can be prevented through immunization. These vaccines include:

Haemophilus influenza type B: The Hib vaccine, which has reduced Hib meningitis cases by 95 percent since 1985, is given to U.S. children in three doses (at 2, 3, and 4 months old).

Meningococcal meningitis caused by strains A, C, Y and W135: The vaccine currently offers no protection against strain B, and it's effective for only 3 to 5 years. It is recommended for:

* All college students (unless pregnant), especially those ages 18 to 24.

* People in close contact with individuals suffering from these strains of meningitis.

* People traveling to Africa or other parts of the world where these types of meningitis are prevalent. The vaccine is not very effective in small children.

Pneumococcal meningitis: Given to people at risk because of conditions such as chronic ear disease, head injury, immune deficiency or the absence of a spleen.

Antibiotics

In the event that there is no vaccination available (for example, in cases of strain B meningococcal meningitis) people in close contact with the infected person are often given antibiotics such as rifampicin to keep them from acquiring the dangerous germ. Another antibiotic A drug that weakens or destroys bacteria; used to treat various types of bacterial infections., ciprofloxacin, may be given to older children and adults.

Rifampicin may cause mild stomach upset and a darkening of the urine. It usually must be taken for just two days and provides significant protection. Rifampicin may also be given to the infected person if there is a chance that the germ may still be present following recovery from a meningitis infection.

Sometimes the families of small children with serious haemophilus infections are given a four-day course of rifampicin.

Prevention For Viral Meningitis

There is no immunization available against viral meningitis. However, routine childhood vaccinations against mumps and polio have virtually eliminated infection from those viruses, which cause the most serious types of viral meningitis.

Since most cases of viral meningitis are caused by enteroviruses Viruses that live in the gut and are usually shed in the feces and in discharges from the mouth and nose., you can prevent infection by washing your hands regularly, especially after changing diapers or coming into contact with feces. It can also be prevented by carefully washing and preparing food. This includes eating foods by the "sell by" or "eat by" dates, and by thoroughly reheating chilled foods before consumption.

What is Creatinine ?

[Extracted from MedicineNet.Com]

Why is there a need to measure Creatinine ?

Creatinine is a chemical waste molecule that is generated from muscle metabolism. Creatinine is produced from creatine, a molecule of major importance for energy production in muscles. Approximately 2% of the body's creatine is converted to creatinine every day. Creatinine is transported through the bloodstream to the kidneys. The kidneys filter out most of the creatinine and dispose of it in the urine.

Because the muscle mass in the body is relatively constant from day to day, the creatinine level in the blood normally remains essentially unchanged on a daily basis.

Why is it important to check blood creatinine levels ?

The kidneys maintain the blood creatinine in a normal range. Creatinine has been found to be a fairly reliable indicator of kidney function.

As the kidneys become impaired for any reason, the creatinine level in the blood will rise due to poor clearance by the kidneys. Abnormally high levels of creatinine thus warn of possible malfunction or failure of the kidneys. It is for this reason that standard blood tests routinely check the amount of creatinine in the blood. A more precise measure of the kidney function can be estimated by calculating how much creatinine is cleared from the body by the kidneys and it is referred to creatinine clearance.

What are "normal" blood creatinine levels ?

Normal levels of creatinine in the blood are approximately 0.6 to 1.2 milligrams (mg) per deciliter (dl) in adult males and 0.5 to 1.1 milligrams per deciliter in adult females. (In the metric system, a milligram is a unit of weight equal to one-thousandth of a gram, and a deciliter is a unit of volume equal to one-tenth of a liter.)

Muscular young or middle-aged adults may have more creatinine in their blood than the norm for the general population. Elderly persons, on the other hand, may have less creatinine in their blood than the norm. Infants have normal levels of about 0.2 or more, depending on their muscle development. In people with malnutrition, severe weight loss, and long standing illnesses the muscle mass tends to diminish over time and, therefore, their creatinine level may be lower than expected for their age.

A person with only one kidney may have a normal level of about 1.8 or 1.9. Creatinine levels that reach 2.0 or more in babies and 10.0 or more in adults may indicate severe kidney impairment and the need for a dialysis machine to remove wastes from the blood.

What are the reasons for elevated blood creatinine ?

Any condition that impairs the function of the kidneys will probably raise the creatinine level in the blood. It is important to recognize whether the process leading to kidney dysfunction (kidney failure, azotemia) is longstanding or recent.

The most common causes of longstanding kidney disease in adults are high blood pressure and diabetes mellitus. Certain drugs can sometimes cause abnormally elevated creatinine levels. Serum creatinine can also transiently rise after ingestion of large amount of dietary meat.

Are there any symptoms associated with elevated blood creatinine levels ?

The symptoms of kidney dysfunction (renal insufficiency) vary widely. Some people may have a incidental finding of severe kidney disease and elevated creatinine on routine blood work without having any symptoms at all. In others, depending on the cause of problem, many different symptoms may be present including:

* feeling dehydrated,

* fatigue,

* shortness of breath,

* confusion, or

* many other nonspecific symptoms.

What is Psoriasis ?

[Thanks to PsoriasisNet who contributed this article which is extremely valuable and informative to anyone out there, who is currently suffering from this type of skin irritations, or problems]

Psoriasis (sore-EYE-ah-sis) is a medical condition that occurs when skin cells grow too quickly. Faulty signals in the immune system cause new skin cells to form in days rather than weeks. The body does not shed these excess skin cells, so the cells pile up on the surface of the skin and lesions form.

What are the signs and symptoms ?

The lesions vary in appearance with the type of psoriasis. There are five types of psoriasis: Plaque, guttate, pustular, inverse, and erythrodermic. About 80% of people living with psoriasis have plaque (plak) psoriasis, also called “psoriasis vulgaris.” Plaque psoriasis causes patches of thick, scaly skin that may be white, silvery, or red. Called plaques (plax), these patches can develop anywhere on the skin. The most common areas to find plaques are the elbows, knees, lower back, and scalp.

Psoriasis also can affect the nails. About 50% of people who develop psoriasis see changes in their fingernails and/or toenails. If the nails begin to pull away from the nail bed or develop pitting, ridges, or a yellowish-orange color, this could be a sign of psoriatic (sore-EE-at-ic) arthritis. Without treatment, psoriatic arthritis can progress and become debilitating. It is important to see a dermatologist if nail changes begin or joint pain develops. Early treatment can prevent joint deterioration.

What causes Psoriasis ?

Psoriasis is not contagious. You cannot get psoriasis from touching someone who has psoriasis, swimming in the same pool, or even intimate contact. Psoriasis is much more complex.

So complex, in fact, scientists are still studying what happens when psoriasis develops. We know that the person’s immune system and genes play key roles. In studying the immune system, scientists discovered that when a person has psoriasis, the T cells (a type of white blood cell that fights unwanted invaders such as bacteria and viruses) mistakenly trigger a reaction in the skin cells. This is why you may hear psoriasis referred to as a “T cell-mediated disease.”

This reaction activates a series of events, causing new skin cells to form in days rather than weeks. The reason T cells trigger this reaction seems to lie in our DNA. People who develop psoriasis inherit genes that cause psoriasis. Unlike some autoimmune conditions, it appears that many genes are involved in psoriasis.

Scientists are still trying to identify all of the genes involved. One of the genes that has been identified is called PSORS1 (SORE-ESS-1). This is one of several genes that regulates how the immune system fights infection.

Scientists also have learned that not everyone who inherits genes for psoriasis gets psoriasis. For psoriasis to appear, it seems that a person must inherit the “right” mix of genes and be exposed to a trigger. Some common triggers are a stressful life event, skin injury, and having strep throat. Many people say that that their psoriasis first appeared after experiencing one of these. Triggers are not universal. What triggers psoriasis in one person may not cause psoriasis to develop in another.

Who gets Psoriasis ?

People worldwide develop psoriasis. In the United States, nearly 7 million people have psoriasis and about 150,000 new cases are diagnosed each year. Studies indicate that psoriasis develops about equally in males and females. Research also shows that Caucasians develop psoriasis more frequently than other races. A study conducted in the United States found the prevalence was 2.5% in Caucasians and 1.3% in African Americans.

A family history of psoriasis seems to increase the risk of developing psoriasis. It is important to know that a family history of psoriasis does not guarantee that someone will develop psoriasis.

When do people get Psoriasis ?

Psoriasis can begin at any age, from infancy through the golden years. There are, however, times when psoriasis is most likely to develop. Most people first see psoriasis between 15 and 30 years of age. About 75% develop psoriasis before they turn 40. Another common time for psoriasis to begin is between 50 and 60 years of age.

Does Psoriasis affect quality of life ?

For some people, psoriasis is a nuisance. Others find that psoriasis affects every aspect of their daily life. The unpredictable nature of psoriasis may be the reason. Psoriasis is a chronic (lifelong) medical condition. Some people have frequent flare-ups that occur weekly or monthly. Others have occasional flare-ups.

When psoriasis flares, it can cause severe itching and pain. Sometimes the skin cracks and bleeds. When trying to sleep, cracking and bleeding skin can wake a person frequently and cause sleep deprivation. A lack of sleep can make it difficult to focus at school or work. Sometimes a flare-up requires a visit to a dermatologist for additional treatment. Time must be taken from school or work to visit the doctor and get treatment.

These cycles of flare-ups and remissions often lead to feelings of sadness, despair, guilt and anger as well as low self-esteem. Depression is higher in people who have psoriasis than in the general population. Feelings of embarrassment also are common.

Knowledge is power

As psoriasis is a life-long condition, it is important to take an active role in managing it. Learning more about psoriasis, seeing a dermatologist to discuss treatment options, and developing a healthy lifestyle can help people live life to the fullest.

What Psoriasis looks like ?

There are five types of psoriasis. Each has its own unique signs
(what is seen) and symptoms (what is felt by the person):

Plaque Psoriasis

About 80% of people living with psoriasis have plaque psoriasis, which also is called “psoriasis vulgaris.” “Vulgaris” means “common.”

How to recognize plaque psoriasis :

* Raised and thickened patches of reddish skin, called “plaques,” which are covered by silvery-white scales.
* Plaques most often appear on the elbows, knees, scalp, chest, and lower back. However, they can appear anywhere on the body, including the genitals.
* Plaques vary in size and can appear as distinct patches or join together to cover a large area.
* In the early stages, the psoriasis may be unnoticeable. The skin may itch and/or a burning sensation may be present.
* Plaque psoriasis usually first appears as small red bumps. Bumps gradually enlarge, and scales form. While the top scales flake off easily and often, scales below the surface stick together. The small red bumps develop into plaques (reddish areas of raised and thickened skin).
* Skin discomfort. The skin is dry and may be painful. Skin can itch, burn, bleed, and crack. In severe cases, the discomfort can make it difficult to sleep and focus on everyday activities.







Guttate Psoriasis

About 10% of people who get psoriasis develop guttate psoriasis, making this the second most common type.

Guttate psoriasis most frequently develops in children and young adults who have a history of streptococcal (strep) infections. A mild case of guttate psoriasis may disappear without treatment, and the person may never have another outbreak of psoriasis. Some children experience flare-ups for a number of years. It also is possible for the psoriasis to appear later in life as plaque psoriasis.

In some cases, guttate psoriasis is severe and disabling, and treatment may require oral medication or injections.



How to recognize guttate psoriasis :

* Drop-sized, red dots form — usually on the trunk, arms, and legs. Lesions occasionally form on the scalp, face, and ears.
* Lesions widespread.
* Appears quickly, usually a few days after a strep throat or other trigger, such as a cold, tonsillitis, chicken pox, skin injury, or taking certain medications.
* Can first appear as another form of psoriasis, such as plaque psoriasis, and turn into guttate psoriasis.

Pustular Psoriasis

This type of psoriasis occurs in less than 5% of people who develop psoriasis and primarily occurs in adults. It may be the first sign of psoriasis or develop from plaque psoriasis. Pustular psoriasis can be triggered by infections, sunburn, or medications such as lithium and systemic cortisones. There are two forms of pustular psoriasis: localized and generalized.

How to recognize localized pustular psoriasis :

* Psoriasis confined to certain areas (localized), usually the palms and soles. This is known as “palmoplantar psoriasis.”
* Skin red, swollen, and dotted with pus-filled lesions.
* Pus-filled lesions dry, leaving behind brown dots and/or scale.
* Affected areas tender and sore. Using hands or walking often painful.





Generalized Pustular Psoriasis is a rare and severe form of psoriasis that can be life-threatening, especially for older adults. Hospitalization may be required. Generalized pustular psoriasis may be triggered by an infection such as strep throat, suddenly stopping steroids, pregnancy, and taking certain medications such as lithium or systemic cortisone.



How to recognize generalized pustular psoriasis :

* Widespread areas of fiery-red swollen skin covered with small, white, pus-filled blisters
* Person feels exhausted and ill
* Fever
* Chills
* Severe itching
* Rapid pulse rate
* Loss of appetite
* Muscle weakness
* Anemia

Inverse Psoriasis

Not common, inverse psoriasis also is called “skin-fold,” “flexural,” or “genital” psoriasis. This type of psoriasis can be severe and incapacitating.

How to recognize inverse psoriasis :

* Red and inflamed plaques that only occur in skin folds — armpits, in the genital area, between the buttocks, and under the breasts.
* Scale usually does not form, and the lesions are shiny and smooth.
* Skin very tender.
* Lesion easily irritated, especially by rubbing and perspiration.
* More prevalent in people who are overweight.
* Many people have another type of psoriasis elsewhere on the body.

Erythrodermic Psoriasis

Also known as “exfoliative” psoriasis, this is the least common type. It occurs in about 1% or 2% of people who develop psoriasis. Erythrodermic psoriasis can be life-threatening because the skin loses its protective functions. The skin may not be able to safeguard against heat and fluid loss nor prevent harmful bacteria and other substances from entering the body. Patients are usually hospitalized and given intravenous fluids. Body temperature regulation may be required.

Erythrodermic psoriasis may occur suddenly in a person who has never had psoriasis or evolve from plaque psoriasis. Triggers include infection, emotional stress, alcoholism, and certain medications such as lithium, anti-malarial drugs, and a strong coal tar preparation. It also may be triggered by excessive use of potent corticosteroids, which is why it is important to use corticosteroids as instructed. Suddenly stopping a psoriasis medication, such as cyclosporine or methotrexate, also can trigger erythrodermic psoriasis.

How to recognize erythrodermic psoriasis :

* Severe redness & shedding of the skin that covers a large portion of the body.
* Skin looks as if it has been burned.
* Fluctuating body temperature, especially on very hot or cold days.
* Accelerated heart rate due to increased blood flow to the skin — can complicate heart disease and cause heart failure.
* Severe itching and pain.

Psoriasis Treatment

Currently, there is no cure for psoriasis. However, there are many treatment options that can clear psoriasis for a period of time. Each treatment has advantages and disadvantages, and what works for one patient may not be effective for another. Board-certified dermatologists have the medical training and experience needed to determine the most appropriate treatments for each patient.

Diagnosis

There are several forms of psoriasis, and each form has unique characteristics that allow dermatologists to visually identify psoriasis to determine what type, or types, of psoriasis is present. Sometimes a skin biopsy will be performed to confirm the diagnosis.

To choose the most appropriate treatment method, dermatologists consider several factors :

* Type of psoriasis
* Severity (the amount of skin affected)
* Where psoriasis is located
* Patient’s age and medical history
* Effects psoriasis has on patient’s overall physical and emotional
well-being

Types of Treatment

Psoriasis treatments fall into 3 categories :

* Topical (applied to the skin) – Mild to moderate psoriasis
* Phototherapy (light, usually ultraviolet, applied to the skin) – Moderate to severe psoriasis
* Systemic(taken orally or by injection or infusion) – Moderate, severe or disabling psoriasis

While each of these therapies is effective, there are also drawbacks.

Some topicals are messy and may stain clothing and skin. Phototherapy can require 2 to 5 weekly visits to a dermatologist’s office or psoriasis clinic for several weeks. Many of the systemic medications have serious side effects and must be combined or rotated with other therapies to maximize effectiveness and minimize side effects. Research is being conducted to find therapies that provide safe, effective, easy-to-use treatment options that provide long-term relief.

What is this so-called Miracle Fruit ?

[Extracted from Wikipedia....the free encyclopedia]

The miracle fruit, or miracle berry plant (Synsepalum dulcificum), produces berries that, when eaten, cause sour foods (such as lemons and limes) subsequently consumed to taste sweet. The berry, which contains active polyphenols was first documented by explorer Chevalier des Marchais who searched for many different fruits during a 1725 excursion to its native West Africa. Marchais noticed that local tribes picked the berry from shrubs and chewed it before meals. The plant grows in bushes up to 20 feet (6.1 m) high in its native habitat, but does not usually grow higher than ten feet in cultivation, and it produces two crops per year, after the end of the rainy season. It is an evergreen plant that produces small red berries, with flowers that are white and which are produced for many months of the year. The seeds are about the size of coffee beans.

The berry itself has a low sugar content and a mildly sweet tang. It contains an active glycoprotein molecule, with some trailing carbohydrate chains, called miraculin. When the fleshy part of the fruit is eaten, this molecule binds to the tongue's taste buds, causing sour foods to taste sweet. While the exact cause for this change is unknown, one hypothesis is that the effect may be caused if miraculin works by distorting the shape of sweetness receptors "so that they become responsive to acids, instead of sugar and other sweet things". This effect lasts 15–60 minutes.



History

An attempt was made in the 1970s to commercialize the ability of the fruit to turn non-sweet foods into sweet foods without a caloric penalty, but ended in failure when the FDA classified the berry as a food additive. There were controversial circumstances with accusations that the project was sabotaged and the research burgled by the sugar industry to prevent loss of business caused by a drop in the need for sugar. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has always denied that pressure was put on it by the sugar industry, but refused to release any files on the subject. Similar arguments are noted for the FDA's regulation on stevia now labeled as a "dietary supplement" instead of a "sweetener".

For a time in the 1970s, US dieters could purchase a pill form of miraculin. It was at this time that the idea of the "miraculin party" was conceived. Recently, this phenomenon has enjoyed some revival in food tasting events, referred to as "flavor tripping parties" by some. The tasters consume sour and bitter foods, such as lemons, radishes, pickles, hot sauce, and beer, to experience the taste changes that occur.



General information and cultivation

The plant grows best at a pH as low as 4.5 to 5.8, in an environment free from frost and in partial shade with high humidity. Without the use of plant hormones or electricity, the seeds have a 24% sprouting success rate. However, it can be around 80% if planted immediately.[citation needed] The plants first bear fruit after growing for approximately 2–3 years.[citation needed]

Attempts have been made to create an artificial sweetener from the fruit, with an idea of developing this for diabetics. Fruit cultivators also report a small demand from cancer patients because the fruit allegedly counteracts a metallic taste in the mouth that may be one of the many side effects of chemotherapy. This claim has not been researched scientifically, though in late 2008, an oncologist at Mount Sinai Medical Center in Miami, Florida began a study and by March 2009 had filed an investigational new drug application with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

In Japan, miracle fruit is popular among diabetics and dieters.

In 2006, researchers at the University of Tsukuba genetically engineered lettuce to produce large amounts of miraculin. The scientists' crops resulted in 40 micrograms of miraculin per gram of lettuce leaves, which was considered a large amount. Two grams of lettuce leaves produced roughly the same amount of miraculin as in one miracle fruit berry. The researchers said others had unsuccessfully used bacteria, yeast and tobacco plants.



Freeze-dried form

Miracle fruit is available as freeze-dried granules or in tablets — this form has a longer shelf life than fresh fruit. Tablets are made from compressed freeze-dried fruit which causes the texture to be clearly visible even in tablet form.

Freeze-dried miracle fruit is now widely available on the Internet.

Limitations

Miraculin is a non heat-stable protein, subject to denaturation from heating and thus miracle berries are not taste-bud active when cooked.

While Miraculin changes the perception of taste, it does not change the food's chemistry, leaving the mouth and stomach vulnerable to the high acidity of some foods, such as lemon juice, which may cause irritation if eaten in large quantities.

What are Eye Floaters, Flashes and Spots ?

[Extracted from AllAboutVision.Com]



Eye floaters are those tiny spots, specks, flecks and "cobwebs" that drift aimlessly around in your field of vision. While annoying, ordinary eye floaters and spots are very common and usually aren't cause for alarm.

Floaters and spots typically appear when tiny pieces of the eye's gel-like vitreous break loose within the inner back portion of the eye.

When we are born and throughout our youth, the vitreous has a gel-like consistency. But as we age, the vitreous begins to dissolve and liquefy to create a watery center.

Some undissolved gel particles occasionally will float around in the more liquid center of the vitreous. These particles can take on many shapes and sizes to become what we refer to as "floaters."

You'll notice that these types of spots and floaters are particularly pronounced when you peer at a bright, clear sky or a white computer screen. But you can't actually see tiny bits of debris floating loose within your eye. Instead, shadows from these floaters are cast on the retina as light passes through the eye, and those shadows are what you see.

You'll also notice that these specks never seem to stay still when you try to focus on them. Floaters and spots move when your eye moves, creating the impression that they are "drifting."

When Are Eye Floaters and Flashes a Medical Emergency ?

If you see a shower of floaters and spots, sometimes accompanied by light flashes, you should seek medical attention immediately.

The sudden appearance of these symptoms could mean that the vitreous is pulling away from your retina or that the retina itself is becoming dislodged from the inner back of the eye that contains blood, nutrients and oxygen vital to healthy function. When the retina is torn, vitreous can invade the opening and push out the retina — leading to a detachment.

In cases of retinal tear or detachment, action must be taken as soon as possible so that an eye surgeon can reattach the retina and restore function before vision is lost permanently.

Posterior vitreous detachments (PVDs) are far more common than retinal detachments and often are not an emergency even when floaters appear suddenly. But some vitreous detachments also can damage the retina by tugging on it, leading to a tear or detachment.

Light flashes known as photopsia can occur when your retina receives non-visual (mechanical) stimulation, which can happen when it is being tugged, torn or detached.
What Causes Eye Floaters and Spots?

As mentioned above, posterior vitreous detachments or PVDs are common causes of vitreous floaters. Far less commonly, these symptoms can be associated with retinal tears or detachments that may be linked to PVDs.

But what leads to vitreous detachments in the first place ?

As the vitreous gel fills the inside of the back of the eye, it presses against and actually attaches to the retina. Over time, the vitreous becomes more liquefied in the center. This sometimes means that the central, more watery vitreous cannot support the weight of the heavier, more peripheral vitreous gel.

Vitreous gel then collapses into the central, liquefied vitreous. While this occurs, the peripheral vitreous detaches from the inner back of the eye where the retina is located.

Floaters resulting from a vitreous detachment are then concentrated in the more liquid vitreous found in the interior center of the eye.

More than half of all people by the time they are 80 will have had a vitreous detachment.* If you are among the 40 percent of people with PVDs who also experience light flashes, then you have about a 15 percent chance of also developing a retinal tear.**

Light flashes during this process mean that traction is being applied to your retina while the PVD takes place. Once the vitreous finally detaches and pressure on the retina is eased, the light flashes should gradually subside.

What Causes Eye Flashes ?

Ordinarily, light entering your eye stimulates the retina. This produces an electrical impulse, which the optic nerve transmits to the brain. The brain then interprets this impulse as light or some type of image.

If the retina is mechanically stimulated (physically touched), a similar electrical impulse is sent to the brain. This impulse is then interpreted as a "flicker" of light.

When the retina is tugged, torn or detached from the back of the eye, a flash or flicker of light commonly is noticed. Depending on the extent of the tear or detachment, these flashes of light might be short-lived or continue indefinitely until the retina is repaired.

Flashes (photopsia) also may occur after a blow to the head, often called "seeing stars."

Some people experience flashes of light that appear as jagged lines or "heat waves" in both eyes, often lasting 10-20 minutes. These types of flashes are usually caused by a spasm of blood vessels in the brain, which is called a migraine.

If a headache follows the flashes, it is called a migraine headache. However, jagged lines or "heat waves" can occur without a headache. In this case, the light flashes are called an ophthalmic migraine, or a migraine without a headache.

Photopsia also can be a symptom of digitalis toxicity, which can occur particularly in older people who take digitalis or related drugs for heart problems.

Other Conditions Associated With Eye Floaters and Flashes

Studies show that bleeding (vitreous hemorrhage) accompanying a PVD means exceptional traction has occurred, which increases the possibility of a retinal tear or detachment. Traction exerted on the retina during a PVD also can lead to development of conditions such as macular holes or puckers.

Vitreous detachments with accompanying vitreous floaters also may occur in circumstances such as:

* Inflammation in the eye's interior
* Nearsightedness
* Cataract surgery
* YAG laser eye surgery
* Diabetes (diabetic vitreopathy)
* CMV retinitis

Inflammation associated with many conditions such as eye infections can cause the vitreous to liquefy, leading to a PVD.

When you are nearsighted, your eye's elongated shape also can increase the likelihood of a PVD and accompanying traction on the retina. In fact, nearsighted people are more likely to have PVDs at a younger age.

PVDs are very common following cataract surgery and a follow-up procedure called a YAG laser capsulotomy. The laser treats a cataract surgery complication in which cloudiness develops in the capsule underlying the artificial lens (IOL). Eye procedures such as these can increase trauma within the eye, leading to vitreous detachments.

Treatment for Spots and Floaters

Most spots and floaters in the eye are harmless and merely annoying. Many will fade over time and become less bothersome.

Sometimes people are interested in surgery to remove floaters, but doctors are willing to perform such surgery only in rare instances when vision seriously is hampered.

At this time, the only way to "clear" the vitreous and its specks and webs would be to remove the gel-like substance entirely from the eye through a vitrectomy procedure. Usually, the vitreous then is replaced with a saline liquid.

Remember that the sudden appearance of a significant number of floaters, especially if they are accompanied by flashes of light or other vision disturbances, could indicate a detached retina or other serious problem in the eye. A retinal detachment or tear is an emergency, requiring immediate attention.

If you suddenly see new floaters, visit your eye doctor without delay.

The 7 Most Beautiful & Deadly Flowers in the World

They often say ......... Beauty always promises, but never gives anything

Just like human beings...the handsome and beautiful ones can also be equally deadly huh !

These 07 species of deadly and poisonous flowers are sent to me by a harmless friend today and I just wished to share with everyone. Do not take chances should you stumbled upon any of them. They can be nice to look at, but please do not be hoodwinked by its charm !!!!

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7. Daphne



Also known as lady laurel or paradise plant, Daphne is a 1-1.5 meters tall shrub, usually grown for its scented flowers. All parts of the plant are poisonous, but the greatest concentrations are in the sap and berries.



Daphne contains mezerine and daphnin, two powerful toxins that cause stomach aches, headaches, diarrhea, delirium and convulsions. If Daphne berries are consumed, the victim might fall into a coma and even die.

6. Lily of the Valley



Just like the Daphne, Lily of the Valley may look beautiful and harmless, but it is entirely poisonous. Eating one or two of the plants bell-shaped flowers wont hurt you very much, especially if youre an adult.



Eaten in large quantities, Lily of the Valley causes pain in the mouth, nausea, vomiting, cramps and diarrhea. People with heart conditions should be most careful since the toxins cause the heartbeats to slow down or become irregular.

5. Belladonna



Known as one of the most poisonous plants in the Western hemisphere, Belladonna contains potentially lethal tropane alkaloids. The entire plant is harmful, but its good-looking berries pose the most danger, especially to kids.



The symptoms of Belladona, or Deadly Nightshade poisoning are dilated pupils, blurred vision, headaches, hallucinations, delirium and convulsions. Atropine, the toxin contained by Belladona, can kill a person by disrupting the nervous systems ability to regulate breathing, sweating and heart rate.

4. Angels Trumpet



Despite its name, theres something very evil about this plant. The toxins it contains can be fatal to humans and a number of animals. Known as a powerful hallucinogen, Angels Trumpet should not be used for recreational purposes, since the risk of an overdose is very high.



Angels Trumpet plants contain a variable amount of tropane alkaloids, like atropine and scopolamine, and it is used in shamanic rituals by indigenous tribes in western Amazonia.



This popular evergreen shrub, featuring large, beautiful blooms, has been known for its toxicity since ancient times. Xenophon recorded the odd behavior of a group of Greek soldiers who had eaten honey from rhododendron flowers.

3. Rhododendron



This popular evergreen shrub, featuring large, beautiful blooms, has been known for its toxicity since ancient times. Xenophon recorded the odd behavior of a group of Greek soldiers who had eaten honey from rhododendron flowers.



Rhododendron contains andromedatoxin which causes nausea, severe pains, paralysis and even death. Azaleas, members of the same plant-family as rhododendron, are also poisonous.

2. Oleander



Oleander is known as one of the most poisonous plants on Earth, often used in suicidal cases around southern India. The numerous toxic compounds contained in the entire Oleander plant, including oleandrin and neriine, affect the nervous, digestive and cardiovascular systems, all at the same time.



Oleander poisoning leads to drowsiness, tremors, seizures, coma and even death. The plants sap causes skin irritation and severe eye inflammation.

1. Autumn crocus



One of the most endangered plants in the world, Autumn crocus is also probably the most poisonous. It contains colchicine, a deadly drug used effectively in the treatment for gout. Unlike other toxins found in the flowers above, colchicine, an arsenic-like poison has no antidote.



Autumn crocus poisoning leads to reduced blood pressure and cardiac arrest.

What is Septicemia ?

[Extracted from Family Health GuideCo.UK]

An Overview

Septicemia is the presence of bacteria in blood. It is commonly known as blood poisoning or bacteremia. It is an acute infection caused by the presence of certain microorganisms and their toxic products in the bloodstream.

The human body has many microorganisms on the skin and in the intestines, which are usually beneficial and pose no threat to good health. But when these organisms enter the bloodstream and spread throughout the body, they can progress to an overwhelming infection. Septicemia is one such infection which contaminates your blood with various bacteria. If not treated appropriately, the infected blood may contaminate other organs or tissues of the body like the brain, liver or kidney, which can be fatal.

If neglected in the early stages, septicemia can rapidly progress to a septic shock. According to the University of Virginia Health System, septicemia that progresses to septic shock has a death rate as high as 50%, depending on the type of bacteria involved. It is therefore a serious medical emergency and requires urgent medical treatment.

What is Septicemia ?

Causes of Septicemia

Septicemia is most commonly caused by cuts and wounds that are infected. These include surgical wounds, burns, miscarriage, diabetic wounds and any internal injury or bleeding due to accidents. It can also arise from infections within the body including infections in the lungs, abdomen and the urinary tract.

Symptoms of Septicemia

Septicemia is characterized by spiking fevers and chills, rapid breathing, increased heart rate and an outward appearance of being toxically ill. Septicemia, if not attended to immediately, can rapidly progress to shock. A person in a state of septic shock has a low body temperature (hypothermia), drop in blood pressure, confusion, and blood-clotting abnormalities.

Diagnosis & Treatment of Septicemia

Diagnosis of septicemia includes physical examination and blood tests. Septicemia must be treated in a hospital, as it requires immediate attention and intensive care. It can be prevented by appropriate treatment of the primary infection. Also vaccination against certain infections can reduce the risk of septicemia. For example the Haemophilus Influenza B (HIB) vaccination, which is a part of the recommended childhood immunization schedule for children, is proven to reduce the number of cases of Haemophilus septicemia.

Several factors can cause septicemia

* Cuts or wounds that are infected: These include cuts caused during surgical procedures for handling infected tissues or any invasive diagnostic procedures, intravenous lines, urinary catheters, and knife or bullet wounds. Burn injuries, especially third degree burns, may also lead to septicemia. The larger the burn, the greater is the risk of infection.

* Internal Injuries: These include stomach injuries, intestinal rupture, gall bladder disease and rupture of the appendix or spleen. In the presence of intestinal perforations, bowel contents spill into other parts of the body and the blood is instantly exposed to high and dangerous levels of bacteria, causing septicemia almost immediately. In women, a miscarriage can also result in septicemia.

* Medical Conditions: Certain existing disease conditions can make you more vulnerable to septicemia. People with diabetes are at a higher risk since they lack the ability to heal from cuts. Others at high risk include patients with burns, chronic cardiac, liver or kidney disorders, malnutrition and excessive/long-term antibiotic use.

* Oral cavity: Infections of the mouth or teeth, if not treated using antibiotics, can cause septicemia.

Symptoms of Septicemia

Septicemia is a serious, life-threatening infection that worsens rapidly. The signs and symptoms are as follows :

* Sudden onset of spiking fevers with chills.

* Rapid breathing with increased heart rate.

* Toxic appearance with a feeling of impending doom.

These symptoms, if not controlled at the earliest, will rapidly progress to a septic shock.

Septic shock

Septic shock is a serious condition that occurs when an uncontrolled/untreated infection leads to low blood pressure and low blood flow. Major organs like your brain, heart, kidneys, and liver may not work properly and may also fail.

The symptoms of a septic shock include the following.

* Cold, clammy, pale and cyanotic (blue) appearance.

* Changes in mental state such as irritability, lethargy, anxiety, agitated, unresponsive and comatose condition.

* Blood-clotting abnormalities characterized by red spots on the skin
(petechiae), large, flat, purplish lesions that do not blanch when pressed (ecchymosis) and decreased or absent blood flow (gangrene).

* Decreased or no urine output.

Diagnosis of Septicemia

The diagnosis of septicemia includes physical examination and blood tests. You doctor will conduct a clinical examination to detect the following :

* Low blood pressure.

* Low body temperature or fever.

* Signs of any underlying disease that may have lead to sepsis such as cellulitis (infection of internal tissues of the skin), epiglottitis (inflammation at the base of the tongue), meningitis (inflammation of membranes around the brain and spinal cord), and pneumonia.

Following the physical examination, your doctor will run a few confirmatory tests. These include :

Microbiological analysis

* Blood culture

* Urine culture

* CSF (Cerebrospinal fluid) culture

* Culture of skin lesion if present

Blood tests

* CBC (Complete Blood Count)

* Platelet count

* Clotting studies 1. Prothrombin time (PT) 2. Partial prothrombin time (PTT) 3. Fibrinogen levels

* Arterial Blood Gas (ABG): This is a test that measures the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood to determine how well your lungs are working.

Treatment of Septicemia

Septicemia needs immediate attention and the patient is admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU). Reversal of septicemia or septic shock is essentially dependent on aggressive treatment of the underlying infection. The treatment will vary according to the severity of septicemia and the underlying disease.

The first step of the treatment involves control and maintenance of blood pressure levels. Fluids and medicines are administered intravenously to maintain the blood pressure. The patient may also be put on oxygen therapy. If needed and if possible, the source of the infection is surgically removed or drained. If clotting abnormalities are present, they are treated by administration of plasma, clotting factors or drugs.

Until the precise cause of septicemia is identified, the infection is treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics that are effective against a wide range of organisms. When the specific organism responsible for the infection has been identified, the patient is given specific antibiotics during treatment.

Complications

Septicemia when associated with some organisms such as meningococci can lead to :

* Irreversible shock

* Adrenal collapse

* Bleeding disorders (disseminated intravascular coagulopathy)

* Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome: This is the failure of the adrenal gland caused by bleeding. It is caused by severe meningococcal infection and is characterized by profound shock. It can be fatal if not treated immediately. • Adult Respiratory

* Distress Syndrome (ARDS)

Bee and Wasp Stings

[Extracted from Medicine.Net.Com]

Insect stings overview

Bee and wasp stings are common causes of medical problems. Bees and wasps, together with fire ants, are all related insects that belong to the Hymenoptera order. Bee and wasp stings can cause significant reactions, ranging from localized pain and swelling to serious and even potentially fatal conditions. At least 40 deaths occur each year in the U.S. as a result of bee or wasp stings.

What are the types of wasps ?

There are over 25,000 species of wasps found throughout the world. Some of the most common wasps include :

* The yellow jacket and hornet, both of which live in groups, or colonies, in temperate climates.

* Yellow jackets, which have black and yellow stripes on the abdomen, form underground nests.

* Hornets are predominantly black with some yellow markings on the head and thorax. Hornets form paper-like nests that are attached to trees, bushes, or buildings.

What are the types of bees ?

Bees include the honey bee, the so-called Africanized honey bee (also known as "killer bee"), and the bumble bee. Bumble bees are large, furry-appearing bees that fulfill the beneficial role of pollinating many plants. Honeybees, also active plant pollinators, are found all over the world. While honey bees are not usually aggressive, they will sting if bothered or threatened. Because their wings flap so rapidly, their presence is associated with a buzzing sound. Although the venom of the "killer bees" found in the Western and Southern U.S. is no more potent than that of regular honeybees, their behavior may be more aggressive. Killer bees may chase victims when agitated and may also attack in greater numbers, thereby increasing the chances of a severe reaction to their stings. Overall, there are more than 20,000 species of bees found worldwide.

What are causes of Bee and Wasp stings ?

Most stings arise because an insect perceives a threat to their colony. Bees and wasps commonly sting because an intruder has neared the hive or nest. Loud noises (such as lawn mowers), bright or dark colors, and certain perfumes or perfumed body products may also encourage stings. Some types of insect venom contain pheromones, which attract other members of the colony and induce them to sting.

When bees or wasps sting an individual, they inject venom under the skin of their victim.

* Honey bees, including killer bees, have barbed stingers that tear off when they try to fly away after stinging, so these bees die after the sting and thus can sting only one time. In this case the stinger and venom sac typically remain embedded in the skin of the victim.

* Bumble bees, hornets, yellow jackets, and wasps are able to sting multiple times, since their stingers are smooth and can be easily withdrawn from the victim's skin.

Bee and wasp venoms vary according to species but typically contain toxic components as well as antigens that stimulate an immune response.

What are the symptoms of a bee or wasp sting?

Insect stings may produce four types of reactions, each with characteristic symptoms as below:

1. Local reactions are the most common type of reaction to a bee or wasp sting. Symptoms include pain, swelling, warmth, and redness at the site of the sting. Itching may also be present. These symptoms begin immediately following the sting and often last for only a few hours. Depending upon the type of insect, the stinging apparatus may still be visible in the affected skin. Large local reactions have a greater degree of swelling that can last for up to a week, sometimes associated with nausea and/or tiredness. These reactions are not allergic reactions.

2. Systemic (body-wide) allergic reactions occur in people who have produced a type of antibody known as IgE antibody against the same insect venom as a result of a previous sting. Systemic allergic reactions are estimated to occur in 0.3% to 3% of stings. Symptoms include hives and flushing of the skin and difficulty breathing due to swelling of the pharynx and epiglottis and narrowing of the bronchial passages. The reaction may vary in severity from mild skin hives to life-threatening reactions. The most severe immunologic reactions are known as anaphylaxis and occur more commonly in males and in people under 20 years of age. In severe reactions, hypotension (low blood pressure), circulatory disturbances, and breathing difficulty can progress to fatal cardiorespiratory arrest. Most people who develop anaphylactic reactions have experienced previous stings with few problems. Once an individual has experienced an anaphylactic reaction, the risk of having a recurrent episode is about 60%.

3. Toxic reactions are a direct result of toxins in the venom rather than the body's immune response. Most often these are due to multiple simultaneous stings that introduce an unusually large amount of venom into the body. Symptoms can include fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, fainting or dizziness, and convulsions. Hives, rash, and skin symptoms are less common in toxic reactions than in allergic reactions. Because bee and wasp venom are strong stimulants of the immune response, people who have experienced toxic reactions may produce antibodies to the venom and be at risk for future systemic anaphylactic reactions to stings.

4. Delayed reactions are uncommon and occur even days to weeks after the sting. These reactions constitute less than 0.3% of all reactions to insect stings. The individual's own medical history and condition may play a role in determining whether delayed reactions occur. Symptoms can vary widely and may include inflammation of the brain (encephalitis), the nerves (neuritis), blood vessels (vasculitis), or kidneys (nephritis) as well as blood clotting disturbances. Serum sickness is a type of delayed reaction that occurs a week to 10 days after a sting and may cause itching, rash, fever, joint pain, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes.

When should I call a doctor about a bee or wasp sting ?

Most bee and wasp stings can be treated at home, but some cases require medical attention. If there is any suspicion at all that a person is having a systemic allergic reaction, seek immediate emergency medical assistance. Signs that a person may be having a systemic reaction include widespread hives or rash, wheezing, difficulty breathing, and swelling in the mouth and throat areas. If a person is stung by an insect whose sting has previously caused an anaphylactic reaction, he or she should also access emergency medical care even if no symptoms are present.

You should also seek medical care if any of the following conditions are present :

* If you have received multiple stings

* If the sting is located in the eye or eye area

* If symptoms of infection (pus, drainage, fever, increasing pain and redness) develop

* If the initial symptoms worsen or persist for longer than 24-48 hours

* If a sting produces severe symptoms in young children, the elderly, or those with chronic medical problems

How is a bee or wasp sting diagnosed ?

In most cases the victim or an observer will have witnessed the sting. Depending upon the type of insect, the stinging apparatus may be found embedded in the skin, but this is not the case with wasps and some types of bees. The characteristic symptoms for each type of reaction along with the history of a sting are typically sufficient to establish a diagnosis.

What is the treatment for a bee or wasp sting ?

Treatment for a mild allergic reaction

* First aid for a bee sting involves cleansing the site, immediate removal of the stinging apparatus (if present), and application of ice or cold packs to the affected area.

* Antihistamines such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) may be taken to relieve itching and burning. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil) may be taken for pain relief.

* If the sting site becomes infected, your doctor may prescribe a course of antibiotics.

* If it has been more than 10 years since your last tetanus booster immunization, get a booster within the next few days.

Treatment for a mild allergic reaction (such as a rash without any breathing difficulty) usually involves the administration of antihistamine medications and sometimes steroid medications to reduce inflammation.

Treatment for anaphylactic reaction

The treatment of choice for life-threatening anaphylactic reactions is epinephrine. Emergency medical treatments may also include steroid and antihistamine medications and insertion of a breathing tube. Intravenous fluids and medications to support cardiovascular function may also be required. Treatment may be begun at the scene by emergency medical personnel and continued in the hospital.

Doctors can prescribe an allergy kit containing self-administered epinephrine (Epi-Pen) for persons at risk for a severe allergic reaction, including those with known allergy to bee or wasp stings. These self-administered injectable epinephrine treatments can be life-saving in many cases. It is important to have kits readily available at home, in the car, at work, etc. and to know how to use them properly.

Immunotherapy is sometimes recommended for those with a history of severe allergic reactions to stings. In this treatment, a series of shots ("allergy shots") are used to provide low-dose exposure to venom. This type of treatment may significantly reduce the chance of future severe allergic reactions.

What are the complications of a bee or wasp sting ?

Complications can include the development of infection at the sting site requiring treatment with antibiotics. Systemic allergic reactions can be life-threatening, as discussed above.

How can I prevent a bee or wasp sting?

You can take preventive measures to decrease your chance of being stung by an insect. Effective prevention tips include the following:

* Avoid, and do not disturb, hives and nests

* When participating in outdoor activities, avoid

fragranced body products, bright colors, and sugary drinks

* Wear long sleeves and long pants outdoors

* Do not walk barefoot outdoors

* Do not swat at swarming bees or wasps

* Exercise caution around fruit trees and blooming flowers

* Keep garbage away from outdoor activity areas


Bee and Wasp Sting At A Glance

* Bees and wasp stings may produce local reactions or systemic (body-wide) allergic reactions.

* Localized pain, redness, and swelling are the most common reaction to a sting.

* Severe allergic reactions to stings are known as anaphylactic reactions and may be life-threatening.

* Treatment of a local reaction involves cleansing, removal of the stinging apparatus if present, and application of ice packs.

* Epinephrine is the treatment of choice for severe allergic reactions.

* A self-administered injectable form of epinephrine is available for individuals at risk for anaphylactic reactions.

Causes of Bad Breath !

[Extracted from Medicine.Net.Com]

Bad breath, medically called halitosis, can result from poor oral hygiene habits and may be a sign of other health problems. Bad breath can also be made worse by the types of foods you eat and other unhealthy lifestyle habits.

How Does What You Eat Affect Breath ?

Basically, all the food you eat begins to be broken down in your mouth. As foods are digested and absorbed into your bloodstream, they are eventually carried to your lungs and given off in your breath. If you eat foods with strong odors (such as, garlic or onions), brushing and flossing - even mouthwash - merely covers up the odor temporarily. The odor will not go away completely until the foods have passed through your body.

Why Do Poor Habits Cause Bad Breath ?

If you don't brush and floss your teeth daily, food particles can remain in your mouth, which promotes bacteria growth between teeth, around the gums, and on the tongue. This causes bad breath. In addition, odor-causing bacteria and food particles can cause bad breath if dentures are not properly cleaned.

Smoking or chewing tobacco-based products can also cause bad breath, stain teeth, reduce your ability to taste foods, and irritate gum tissues.

What Health Problems Are Associated With Bad Breath ?

Persistent bad breath or a bad taste in your mouth may be warning signs of gum disease. Gum disease is caused by the buildup of plaque on teeth. The bacteria cause toxins to form in the mouth, which irritate the gums. If periodontal disease continues untreated, it can damage the gums and jawbone.

Other dental causes of bad breath include poorly fitting dental appliances, yeast infections of the mouth and dental caries.

The medical condition dry mouth (also called xerostomia) can also cause bad breath. Saliva is necessary to moisten and cleanse the mouth by neutralizing acids produced by plaque and washing away dead cells that accumulate on the tongue, gums, and cheeks. If not removed, these cells decompose and can cause bad breath. Dry mouth may be caused by the side effects of various medications, salivary gland problems, or continuous breathing through the mouth.

Many other diseases and illnesses may cause bad breath. Here are some to be aware of: respiratory tract infections such as pneumonia or bronchitis, chronic sinus infections, postnasal drip, diabetes, chronic acid reflux, liver or kidney problems.

What Can I Do to Prevent Bad Breath ?

Bad breath can be reduced or prevented if you :

1. Practice good oral hygiene. Brush twice a day with fluoride toothpaste to remove food debris and plaque. Brush your teeth after you eat (keep a toothbrush at work or school to brush after lunch). Don't forget to brush your tongue, too. Replace your toothbrush every 2 to 3 months. Use floss or an interdental cleaner to remove food particles and plaque between your teeth once a day. Dentures should be removed at night and cleaned thoroughly before being placed in your mouth the next morning.

2. See your dentist regularly - at least twice a year. He or she will conduct an oral examination and professional teeth cleaning and will be able detect and treat periodontal disease, dry mouth, or other problems that may be the cause of bad mouth odor.

3. Stop smoking/chewing tobacco-based products. Ask your dentist for tips on kicking the habit.

4. Drink lots of water. This will keep your mouth moist. Chewing gum (preferably sugarless) or sucking on candy (preferably sugarless) also stimulates the production of saliva, which helps wash away food particles and bacteria.

5. Keep a log of the foods you eat. If you think the foods that you eat may be causing your bad breath, record what you eat so that you can determine which foods may be contributing to the problem. Bring the log to your dentist to review. Similarly, make a list of the medications you take. Some medications may play a role in creating mouth odors.

Who Treats Bad Breath ?

In most cases, your dentist can treat the cause of bad breath. If your dentist determines that your mouth is healthy and that the odor is not of oral origin, you may be referred to your family doctor or to a specialist to determine the odor source and treatment plan. If the odor is due to gum disease, for example, your dentist can either treat the disease or refer you to a periodontist, a dentist who specializes in treating gum conditions.

What Products Can I Use to Eliminate Bad Breath ?

You can buy a number of mouthwashes over-the-counter that claim to eliminate bad breath. However, keep in mind that many of these mouthwashes generally provide only a temporary way to mask unpleasant mouth odor. There are, however, several antiseptic mouth-rinse products available that instead of simply masking breath odor kill the germs that cause bad breath. Ask your dentist about which product is best for you.